Article: C. L. Crouch,
“Ezekiel's Oracles against the Nations in Light of a Royal Ideology
of Warfare,” Journal of Biblical Literature 130 (2011): 473
– 492.
[A shorter version of this paper was submitted by Evangeline S. Santos to Prof. Sr. Miriam Alejandrino, OSB, under the course Prophetic Literature at the Divine Word Seminary, Tagaytay, 2nd sem, SY 2012-13]
If a
human king's victory in a war
is a reflection of the triumph of the divine king, how does a prophet
explain the utter and devastating defeat of his people without
conceding defeat in the divine realm? Crouch explores Ezekiel's use
of mythological motifs and the oracles against the nations (OANs) as
the prophet's attempt to explain the experience of exile in the light
of pre-exilic royal military ideology and to reassert YHWH's claims
to kingship.
Crouch
begins by discussing the studies of Christoph Auffarth and John B.
Geyer. In a study on the creation theme in myth and ritual, Auffarth
argues that Ezekiel's mythological allusions are ultimately directed
towards a “subversive theological reinterpretation” (p. 474) of
Babylon's New Year festivities in honor of Marduk.
Auffarth contends that Ezekiel uses the mythological traditions of
the foreign nations as a criticism directed outward, i.e., towards
Babylon, and is an assertion of YHWH's triumph over chaos rather than
Marduk's victory over Tiamat (pp. 474 – 475). However, Crouch
counters that Ezekiel's message was internally-directed, “concerned
not so much with the illegitimacy of the foreign forms of the
tradition as with supporting the ongoing legitimacy of the tradition
within the native Judahite tradition complex” (p. 476).
In
another study following the footsteps of Sigmund Mowinckel, Geyer
proposes that the OANs form in Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel (except
Ezekiel 25) is connected to the cultic origins of the “Day of
Yahweh”
tradition, particularly the lament tradition. Geyer also further
argues for the centrality of the enthronement of YHWH. However,
Crouch criticizes that Geyer's study demands a context of liturgical
celebration in the temple before Deuteronomic reforms were
implemented, “which is patently not possible in the exilic context
of Ezekiel” (p. 476), and presents a sociohistorical context that
is mismatched to where “the relevant OAN material is found” (p.
477).
For
Crouch, the meshing of the “military endeavors of the human
Judahite king” with Yahweh's defeat of chaos (from which YHWH's
divine kingship arises) elucidates why Ezekiel used mythological
motifs in a royal context (pp. 477 – 478). In the face of complete
defeat (i.e., the destruction of the Davidic dynasty in light of the
covenant promise), Ezekiel is obliged to reassert YHWH's claims to
his status as divine king and creator—hence, the intended
vindication as expressed in the OANs. Crouch sets out to reinforce
“the link between the debasement of the nations and the vindication
of Yahweh” by demonstrating that Ezekiel utilized “mythological
traditions of Judah specifically and deliberately to affirm Yahweh's
claims to kingship” (p. 479).
Of
the two dominant OANs, Egypt is discussed first. Described as a great
dragon (NRSV), scholars are generally divided between the
demythologized camp—of the “It’s-just-a-crocodile”
perspective (Moshe Greenberg, Daniel I. Block, and Auffarth), and
those who see the sea monster as representative of cosmic chaos
(Lawrence Boadt).
Crouch tends toward the latter.
In
claiming the creation and ownership of the Nile, Egypt is established
as YHWH's primeval nemesis, therefore, YHWH has to reiterate his
“royal authority over such manifestations of chaos” (p. 483).
Crouch lays out the mythological evidence to convey this development:
the assault on the great dragon evokes Job 40:25-32 and Enuma
Elish IV 95-102; a “persistent and repeated use of language of
the primeval waters” evinces the powers of chaos; and the drying up
and containment thereof signal YHWH's victory. Echoes of the Garden
of Eden and ANE parallelisms are also brought up.
The
net as a weapon (i.e., “In an assembly of many peoples I will throw
my net over you...” [Ezek 32:3] vis-à-vis “Marduk trapped the
eleven of Tiamat in his net...”)
is described as “one of the most deliberate allusions used in royal
inscriptions to align the activities of the human king with those of
the god (Enuma Elish IV 95).”
It is a weapon of royalty indicating the king's clash with chaos.
After
Egypt, Crouch discusses Tyre. Being a coastal city, the geographic
descriptions and mythological allusions are difficult to distinguish.
Scholars are again divided: Greenberg and Block are on the
demythologizing camp; H. J. Van Dijk and Margaret S. Odell are for
the mythological.
Historical
and mythological language mix but a look at Eze 26:3 (“I will hurl
many nations against you, as the sea hurls its waves”) shows how
the second part immediately gives cosmic significance to the first
part. In Eze 26:19-21, the oracle speaks of Tyre being “submerged
by the waters of the cosmic flood, the abyss (tehom) or watery
chaos from which the created world emerged at the beginning of time
and to which it reverted at the great deluge (Gen. 1:2; 6-8),”
followed by descent into the pit (sheol or the netherworld) from
which there is no going back.
Crouch
states that the imagery of the net, the flood, and Tyre as a naked
rock are indicative of chaos. The ship metaphor could have the
cosmological meaning of Tyre being on the way to the depths of the
primeval sea (Van Dijk). Auffarth postulates that boats were used in
the processions of the New Year festival in Babylon; therefore, the
destruction of the Tyre-ship would symbolize the end of Tyre's
pretentions to having dominion over the sea—a power reserved for
YHWH alone (Odell) (p. 486).
As
for the prince of Tyre, Van Dijk claims there is no allusion to
Canaanite mythology but translates tynIëk.T'
~teäAx as
“serpent of perfection” to concur with Edenic imagery in later
verses (p. 486). In contrast, P.-M. Bogaert argues that this passage
was directed to the high priest in Jerusalem.
Overall, Crouch
finds a consistent use of mythological motifs that identifies Egypt
and Tyre with the forces of chaos over which YHWH had triumphed at
creation.
In
the remaining OANs, there is an absence of mythological elements.
Rather than accepting the view that the oracles against Ammon, Moab,
Edom and Philistia were simply added to get the symbolic “seven”
nations,
Crouch observes a correlation between the nation's offense and
corresponding punishment of Philistia and Edom. There is a three-fold
use of ~q'n" (vengeance) in accusing the nation of its wrongdoing and a two-fold
use when announcing judgment. The connection, however, is not clear
in the first two oracles. In exploring the
possibility of a principle of lex talionis underlining the
OANs against Edom and Philistia, Crouch acknowledges the observations
made by scholars (Wong and Miller). However, the relation between
offenses and punishments are so loose, such connections might just be
due to purposes of metaphorical consistency (Michael A. Fishbane)
(see footnote 74, p. 490).
One
persuasive example of lex talionis
is Egypt's forty-year exile declared in Ezek 29:13.
Because the announcement of Egypt's restoration seems out of place
amidst the more foreboding text, Crouch proposes this to be a later
addition, among others (p. 491).
Crouch
concludes that Ezekiel's efforts to affirm the power of YHWH by means
of cosmological imagery were perceived to have failed. A shift in
strategy was thus the addition of passages describing the defeat of
the nations under the principle of lex talionis (p.
492).
Methodology
Ezekiel’s
mythological motifs in the OANs are approached from sociohistorical
perspective of pre-exilic royal military ideology, taking into
account the varying mythological motifs across cultures of the
ancient Near East when applicable.
Crouch
first analyzes and compares the mythological elements of the dominant
OANs (Egypt and Tyre) before discussing the non-mythological oracles.
Examination of selected texts (e.g., noting repetitions, applying
exegesis to certain words) and intertextuality are used from time to
time.
Critique
Crouch
seems well-grounded in current research and presents contrasting
perspectives on various aspects of the study while setting forth his
own arguments. The argument that the mythological motifs of Ezekiel’s
OANs were a direct response to the theological threat posed to YHWH
by Judah’s military defeat seems well supported and convincing.
However,
the article leaves unexplained why Crouch says Ezekiel's attempts to
assert YHWH's kingship were perceived to have failed. Was Ezekiel
perceived as a failure because his prophecies had not come true soon
after he spoke? Or that people had not listened? Many prophets might
be considered failures if measured by that criterion. The fact that
the text has been preserved indicates that enough people were
sufficiently affected to think Ezekiel worthy of conservation, which
in itself seems to be an argument against the assumed (?) perceived
failure.
Due
to this question, it is difficult to accept the proposition that
Ezekiel introduced passages underlined by a lex talionis
principle because of a perceived failure of assertion of YHWH’s
kingship.
Findings
Crouch
gives persuasive arguments that the mythological motifs in the OANs
of Ezekiel are an attempt to reassert YHWH’s claims to kingship in
the light of royal military ideology. Since the human king’s
success or failure was a reflection of what happened in the realm of
the divine, Judah’s military defeat posed a crisis of faith which
Ezekiel attempted to address. The latter part of the article,
however, leaves one hanging in terms of the lex talionis
proposition.
Reflection
The
prophet's unwavering faith in the face of a complete defeat is
inspiring. The exile proved to be the cleansing fire that purified a
remnant who would go forth with greater conviction in their identity
as a covenant people of God. Echoing Qoheleth, it was a “time of
death and a time of re-creation,”
and Ezekiel was one of the prophets called to help in that
re-creation.
Similarly,
trials in life serve to strengthen those who manage to go through the
dark tunnel and emerge into a new day. Whether it is a challenge
regarding our faith or our identity, a crisis can spur one to search
for answers, to seek God when he seems silent, and to lament with
that undercurrent of trust that God hears the cries of the
brokenhearted and will answer in due time.
One
intriguing question is what happened to the nations against which
Ezekiel prophesied. Israel and Egypt, both of which were promised
different degrees of restoration, are the ones that still exist as
nations today. It may not be a conclusion scholars would accept but
theologically, we could surmise that historical events are weaved
into the divine plan according to the Word of God.
Endnotes:
